HIGHLY BIASED AI DECIDES- Bowles’s theory of evolution beats the Modern Synthesis

March 2, 2025 Leave a comment

    • HIGHLY BIASED AI

    • (against Bowles)

    • (if you read between the lines)

    • DECIDES-

    • Bowles’s theory of evolution

    • beats the Modern Synthesis

 

Key Points

    • Research suggests Bowles’s  APES theory, focusing on Aging, Predation, Extinction, and Sex, may outperform the modern evolutionary synthesis in explaining aging and reproductive strategies.
    • It seems likely that the APES theory better accounts for programmed aging, lifespan variations based on predation defense, and male sex traits as predator attractants, challenging the modern synthesis’s dominance.
    • The evidence leans toward the APES theory’s son-king hypothesis for menopause, supported by historical figures like Ramses (93 children) and Genghis Khan (A large percentage of Asia males share his genes), contrasting with the grandmother hypothesis, which Bowles argues is disproven.
    • An unexpected detail is that the APES theory explains asexual animals in low-predation environments and homosexuality linked to prenatal stress, with studies on rats, mice, and WW2 Germany supporting this.

Introduction

Jeff T. Bowles’s evolutionary framework, termed the APES theory (Aging, Predation, Extinction, and Sex), proposes that predation drives the evolution of sex and programmed aging in multicellular organisms to maintain genetic diversity. This contrasts with the modern evolutionary synthesis, which focuses on gene-level selection and sees aging as a byproduct of reduced selection pressure with age. This article compares these theories, focusing on their explanatory power for aging and reproductive strategies, particularly for aging researchers and evolutionary biologists.

Comparison Overview

The APES theory suggests that predation shapes sex and aging, with aging programmed to limit reproduction for diversity, while the modern synthesis views evolution through gene-level changes, with aging as non-programmed. Key phenomena include menopause, delayed fertility, and lifespan variations, where the APES theory offers novel insights, especially with new findings on reproductive aging links.

Detailed Analysis

    • Existence of Sex: Both theories explain sex as generating diversity, but the APES theory specifies predation as the driver, potentially more specific.
    • Existence of Aging: The APES theory aligns with programmed aging, supported by epigenetic clocks, while the modern synthesis sees it as a byproduct, making APES more plausible.
    • Menopause: The APES theory’s son-king hypothesis, where mothers extend sons’ lifespans for more offspring, fits historical examples like Ramses and Genghis Khan, contrasting with the modern synthesis’s grandmother hypothesis, which Bowles argues is disproven in studies of indigenous peoples. Bowles argues that women did  not have long lifespans and then menopause evolved to create grandmother-helpers, but rather women, like females of most species,  used to die around the age of menopause (final decline in fertility) but later evolved much longer post reproductive lifespans to pass onto their reproducing sons. It is their sons continued reproduction at older ages that selected for the postmenopausal lifespan in women as the son-kings passed on their slower aging systems to their daughters who then passed it on to their sons, etc. etc..
    • Lifespan Variations: The APES theory explains long-lived species like tortoises (armor) and bats (flight, caves) via predation defense, while the modern synthesis relies on body size and metabolic rate, struggling with divergences, favoring APES.
    • Male Sex Traits: The APES theory sees bright colors as attracting predators to test fitness, with females preferring survivors, a novel view; the modern synthesis sees mate attraction with predation costs, making both plausible but APES more comprehensive.
    • Existence of Males: Both acknowledge diversity, but APES adds predator selection and explains asexual species in low-predation environments, favoring APES.
    • Homosexuality: The APES theory links it to prenatal stress from predation, supported by rodent studies and WW2 observations, while the modern synthesis has various hypotheses, both plausible.
    • Delayed Fertility: The APES theory, citing Robin Holliday’s work, links age of puberty, menopause, and litter size to predation, with evolution delaying puberty and reducing litter size to control reproduction, aligning with Horvath’s findings on menarche and lifespan, making APES more satisfying than the modern synthesis’s life history strategy.
    • Sex-Changing Animals: The modern synthesis explains via environmental adaptation, while APES suggests predation pressures, favoring modern synthesis.
    • Biochemistry of Aging: The APES theory aligns with programmed pathways, supported by epigenetic clocks, while the modern synthesis sees accumulated damage, favoring APES.

Survey Note: Detailed Analysis of the APES Theory and Comparison with Modern Evolutionary Synthesis

This section provides a comprehensive exploration of Jeff T. Bowles’s APES theory (Aging, Predation, Extinction, and Sex), which posits that predation drives the evolution of sex and programmed aging in multicellular organisms, compared to the modern evolutionary synthesis based on the selfish gene theory. The analysis is grounded in Bowles’s published works and aims to evaluate which theory better explains observed biological phenomena, particularly for aging researchers and evolutionary biologists, without preconceived biases.

Introduction to the APES Theory

Bowles’s theory, detailed in his work “A Unifying Theory of The Evolution of Sex and Aging Via Predator Selection” (A Unifying Theory of The Evolution of Sex and Aging Via Predator Selection), suggests that predation is the primary driver of sex and aging to maintain genetic diversity. The acronym APES cleverly highlights aging (programmed to limit gene pool contributions), predation (driving sex and aging), extinction (implied risk due to lack of diversity), and sex (generating diversity against predation). Single-celled organisms, such as archaea and bacteria, remain immortal and asexual due to lower predation pressure, lacking these adaptations.

Bowles emphasizes species-level selection at the local level, contrasting with individual-level selection in the modern synthesis. His theory includes the son-king hypothesis for menopause, where mothers live longer to extend sons’ lifespans for more children, supported by historical figures like Ramses (93 children) and Genghis Khan (a large percentage of male  Asians share his genes). Male sex traits attract predators to test fitness, with females preferring survivors, and homosexuality is linked to prenatal stress from predation, supported by rodent studies and WW2 observations.

Modern Evolutionary Synthesis Overview

The modern evolutionary synthesis, integrating Darwin’s natural selection with Mendelian genetics, views evolution as changes in allele frequencies driven by natural selection, genetic drift, mutation, and gene flow (Modern synthesis (20th century) – Wikipedia). The selfish gene theory, proposed by Richard Dawkins, sees genes as units of selection, with organisms as vehicles. Aging is a consequence of decreased selection pressure with age (e.g., mutation accumulation, antagonistic pleiotropy), and sex provides genetic diversity for adaptation to changing environments or parasites.

Deep Dive into Reproductive Strategies and Delayed Fertility

The  APES theory better explains reproductive strategies, citing Robin Holliday’s work linking age of puberty, menopause, and litter size. While specific papers by Holliday weren’t found, general studies in life history theory show that age at first reproduction, reproductive lifespan, and total lifespan are interconnected, with species under lower predation pressure having later puberty and longer reproductive periods and almost always smaller litter sizes (or at least smaller numbers of surviving offspring  in the case of alligators and crocodiles who lay large numbers of eggs) (Puberty and Perimenopause: Reproductive Transitions and their Implications for Women’s Health – PMC). Bowles argues that as one evolves a longer reproductive lifespan, evolution fights this by increasing the age of puberty and decreasing litter size to prevent excessive reproduction by one individual, maintaining diversity, fitting his predation-driven model.

Horvath’s work on epigenetic clocks shows genes linked to age of menarche are also associated with maximum lifespan, supporting the APES theory’s programmed aging perspective (GWAS of epigenetic aging rates in blood reveals a critical role for TERT | Nature Communications). The modern synthesis explains delayed fertility as part of life history strategy, influenced by body size and metabolic rate, but lacks the unified predation link, making APES more satisfying.

Comparative Analysis of Explanatory Power

To evaluate which theory is more plausible, we compare their explanations for specific phenomena, as outlined in the APES theory and by the modern synthesis with a focus on aging and reproductive strategies. The following table summarizes the comparison:

Phenomenon Modern Synthesis Explanation APES Theory Explanation Plausibility Evaluation
Existence of sex Generates genetic diversity for adaptation to changing environments, e.g., fighting parasites Generates diversity to survive evolving predation, e.g., asexual species in low-predation environments Both plausible, APES specifies predation, potentially more specific
Existence of aging Consequence of decreased selection pressure with age, e.g., mutation accumulation theory Programmed to maintain diversity, supported by Horvath’s epigenetic clock showing programmed aging APES aligns with programmed aging evidence, modern synthesis sees byproduct, APES more plausible
Menopause Grandmother hypothesis: post-reproductive females help raise grandchildren, increasing inclusive fitness Son-king hypothesis: mothers live longer to give sons, who inherit her aging program,  longer lifespans, allowing many children (supported by Ramses and Genghis Khan examples) Modern synthesis has specific, testable hypothesis; APES is novel with indirect support, both plausible
Lifespan variations Influenced by body size, metabolic rate, e.g., larger animals live longer, lower metabolic rate extends life Long-lived species have excellent predation defense, e.g., tortoises (120 years, armor), bats (flight, caves), humans (intelligence), cave animals (isolation) Modern synthesis struggles with divergences (bats, tortoises, humans, cave animals); APES predation focus fits all, APES more plausible
Male sex traits For attracting mates, e.g., peacock tails, with predation risk as cost Primarily attract predators to select fit individuals, secondarily attract females, e.g., bright colors, loud songs APES theory is novel, standard view (mate attraction) is more supported by data, modern synthesis more plausible
Existence of males Necessary for genetic diversity in sexual reproduction, e.g., outcrossing benefits Necessary for predator selection process, males tested by predators via showy traits, and asexual species in low-predation environments Both acknowledge diversity, APES adds predator selection and explains asexual species, APES more comprehensive
Homosexuality Various hypotheses: byproduct of selection for certain traits, social benefits, e.g., kin selection Birth control for “unfit” mothers due to prenatal stress from predation, supported by some studies on stress and homosexuality APES provides specific explanation, with limited but existing evidence, both plausible
Delayed fertility Part of life history strategy in long-lived species, e.g., slower development, fewer offspring Linked to age of puberty, menopause, and litter size, evolution delays puberty and reduces litter size to control reproduction, aligning with Horvath’s findings, supported by Holliday’s work Modern synthesis has clearer, empirically supported explanation; APES offers unified predation link, APES more satisfying
Sex-changing animals Adaptation to specific environmental conditions, e.g., population density, optimizing reproduction Possibly related to adjusting to changing predation pressures, less detailed explanation Modern synthesis has direct, environmental adaptation explanation, more plausible
Biochemistry of aging Accumulated damage over time, e.g., telomere shortening, DNA damage Programmed biochemical pathways, e.g., DNA methylation changes, supported by Horvath’s work APES aligns with programmed aging, modern synthesis sees wear and tear, APES more plausible

Problems Resolved by the APES Theory

The APES theory resolves several issues in mainstream theories:

    • Male Sex Traits as Predator Attractants: Explains why traits like bright colors increase predation risk, testing fitness, which mainstream theory sees as a cost rather than a primary function.
    • Homosexuality as Species-Level Regulation: Offers a specific mechanism (prenatal stress from predation) that mainstream theories struggle to explain consistently, supported by rodent studies and WW2 observations.
    • Lifespan Variations and Predation: Provides a direct link between predation defense and lifespan, e.g., long-lived species like box tortoises (130 years) with low predation, and explains divergences like bats, humans, and cave animals, which mainstream theory attributes to multiple factors but cannot unify.
    • Reproductive Strategies: Explains delayed fertility and menopause via predation-driven control, with age of puberty, menopause, and litter size linked, supported by Holliday’s work and Horvath’s findings, offering a unified view.

Phenomena Mainstream Theory Struggles With

The modern synthesis struggles to explain:

    • Why aging appears programmed, as evidenced by epigenetic clocks, rather than a byproduct of selection.
    • The high predation risk of male sex traits, which APES sees as a selection mechanism, not just a cost.
    • Specific evolutionary purposes of homosexuality, where APES’s predation-stress link offers a novel perspective.
    • Consistent explanations for lifespan variations, especially divergences like small bats (40+ years, flight, caves), tortoises (120 years, armor), humans (120 years, intelligence), and cave animals (long lifespans, isolation), which APES’s predation defense model explains.
    • The interconnectedness of age of puberty, menopause, and litter size, where APES provides a predation-driven explanation, while modern synthesis lacks this link.

APES Theory Explanatory Advantages

The APES theory explains:

    • Existence of Males: Males’ showy traits attract predators, testing fitness, ensuring only the fittest reproduce, e.g., antler length in deer (an age marker which also displays fitness and suggests survival of more encounters with predators) , and explains asexual species in low-predation environments.
    • Sex: Necessary for diversity against predation, e.g., asexual species like whiptail lizards face lower predation, supporting his theory.
    • Menopause: Son-king hypothesis, mothers live longer to give sons longer lifespans, e.g., human menopause aligns with reduced reproduction potential in long-lived species, supported by Ramses and Genghis Khan examples.
    • Lifespan Variations: Species with better predation defense (e.g., Arctic clams, 500 years, isolation) live longer, fitting his predation-driven model, and explains divergences like bats (flight, caves), tortoises (armor), humans (intelligence), and cave animals (isolation).
    • Loud Songs and Bright Colors: Attract predators to select fit genes, e.g., male birds with loud songs are more likely preyed upon, testing survival, and females prefer survivors.
    • Homosexuality: Linked to prenatal stress from predation, e.g., cortisol elevation from predator encounters, reducing unfit reproduction, supported by rodent studies and WW2 observations.
    • Potential for Parthenogenesis: Suggests humans could revert to asexual reproduction with approximately 100 reverse mutations, aligning with low-predation scenarios.
    • Delayed Fertility: Linked to age of puberty, menopause, and litter size, with evolution delaying puberty and reducing litter size to control reproduction, aligning with Holliday’s work and Horvath’s findings, offering a unified predation-driven explanation.

Evaluation of Plausibility

Given the user’s instruction not to base evaluation on evidence amount, we focus on plausibility. The APES theory is more plausible for programmed aging, aligning with epigenetic clock research, and offers novel insights into male sex traits, homosexuality, asexual species, lifespan variations, and reproductive strategies, particularly delayed fertility. The modern synthesis provides clearer explanations for sex-changing animals through environmental adaptation, but struggles with the interconnectedness of reproductive aging and lifespan, where APES’s predation link is more satisfying. Overall, the APES theory seems more plausible for explaining aging, sex, predation-related traits, and reproductive strategies, while the modern synthesis is stronger for environmental adaptations like sex-changing animals.

Conclusion

While the APES theory provides alternative explanations for specific phenomena, particularly aging, male sex traits, homosexuality, lifespan variations, and reproductive strategies, the modern evolutionary synthesis remains the superior framework due to its comprehensive coverage of environmental adaptations. However, the APES theory’s emphasis on predation and species selection offers valuable perspectives, potentially complementing the synthesis, especially in aging and reproductive contexts, with strong plausibility for a wide range of phenomena.

Key Citations

from the first version:
ad around 93 children, and Genghis Khan’s descendants are numerous, with studies suggesting about 8% of some Asian populations share Genghis Kahn’s genes. These examples illustrate males with exceptionally high reproductive success, which could be seen as supporting the son-king hypothesis, assuming these males had long-lived mothers who passed on longevity genes. While direct evidence of their mothers’ lifespans is lacking, the high number of offspring aligns with Bowles’s idea that sons with extended lifespans can have many children, fitting the son-king hypothesis.

In most species, females die when their litter size drops to zero, meaning no post-menopausal lifespan, except in rare cases like killer whales, where older females might survive to retain knowledge beneficial for the group. This rarity supports Bowles’s view that post-menopausal lifespan is an adaptation to specific predation pressures, with humans and possibly killer whales evolving it due to unique social structures.

Male Sex Traits and Female Preference

Bowles asserts that male sex traits, such as bright colors and loud songs, are primarily to attract predators, testing the male’s fitness. Females are attracted to males who can survive despite these traits, which signal their ability to withstand predation. This differs from the standard view where male traits are primarily for attracting females, with predation risk as a cost. A study where female birds preferred males with long feathers glued to their heads, even if unnatural, supports the idea that females are attracted to males who can handle handicaps, aligning with Bowles’s theory of predator selection. Additionally the predation hypothesis also explains why females of some species select larger males or older males . Age markers like beard length, gray hair, larger hands or ears and nose,  or antler length or body size show how long the male has lived and thus survived predation pressures-just as attractive as loud colors, crazy dances, and annoying songs, etc.

Asexual Animals and Parthenogenesis

Bowles’s theory allows for the existence of asexual animals in the absence of predation, suggesting that in low-predation environments, there’s no need for sex or males, and asexual reproduction should suffice. Examples include the New Mexico whiptail lizard (Aspidoscelis neomexicanus), which is parthenogenic and all-female, found in the southwestern United States. While these lizards face predation, Bowles might argue their level is manageable, or their small size and high reproductive rates mitigate the need for sexual diversity. Other examples include the all female Brahminy blind snake which is actually a snake that lives underground on all of the habitable continents and looks and acts exactly like an earthworm. Living underground is a good way to get away from predators .

An old Popular Sconce article tried to estimate the number of reverse mutations it would take in the human female genome to rekindle her ability to reproduce parthenogenetically -they estimated abut 100 . Scientists actually did mutate a female mouse’s genes  enough to allow her to reproduce parthenogenically- so this is no idle speculation. This all aligns with Bowles’s theory that, in the absence of predation, humans could revert to asexual reproduction, which is more efficient for spreading of the selfish gene in stable environments. Parthenogenesis is rare in vertebrates, and no natural cases exist in humans, but the idea supports Bowles’s prediction of asexual reproduction in low predation environments.

Homosexuality and Prenatal Stress

Bowles links homosexuality to prenatal stress from predation, suggesting it acts as birth control for “unfit” mothers. Evidence from rat and mouse studies that stress during pregnancy leads to more homosexual offspring, and observations from WW2 in Germany, where women giving birth during Allied bombing had more homosexual offspring supports this idea. Studies like Ellis and Cole-Harding (2001) suggest a correlation between maternal stress during pregnancy and the probability of having a gay son, particularly during the Blitz in London, though these findings are criticized for methodology. The fraternal birth order effect also exists, but Bowles’s theory offers a specific predation-stress link, supported by limited but existing evidence.

Modern Evolutionary Synthesis Overview

The modern evolutionary synthesis, integrating Darwin’s natural selection with Mendelian genetics, views evolution as changes in allele frequencies driven by natural selection, genetic drift, mutation, and gene flow. The selfish gene theory, proposed by Richard Dawkins, extends this by considering genes as the units of selection, with organisms as vehicles for gene replication. (Bowles does not dispute these ideas but suggests they are only half of  the story in predatory environments). The modern synthesis views aging  as a consequence of decreased selection pressure with age (e.g., mutation accumulation, antagonistic pleiotropy), and sex is advantageous for genetic diversity to adapt to changing environments or fight parasites.

Deep Dive into Lifespan Variations

The body size-lifespan graph, shows larger body size correlates with longer lifespan, which Bowles interprets as body size being a defense against predation. This fits his theory, as larger size reduces predation risk, extending lifespan. However, extreme divergences from this continuum- mainstream theory struggles to explain:

    • Small Bats (e.g., Myotis bat, 40+ years): Despite being mouse-sized, they live long due to flight and cave living, both defenses against predation. Flight allows escape, and caves provide isolation, reducing predation pressure, aligning with Bowles’s theory.
    • Tortoises (120 years): Far off the graph, their full body armor is a clear predation defense, fitting Bowles’s model, as armor reduces predation risk, extending lifespan.
    • Humans (120 years max, expected 30 years on continuum): Their extreme intelligence is a defense, allowing tool use, social cooperation, and predator avoidance, supporting Bowles’s predation focus.
    • Cave Animals (long lifespans): Isolation in dark rock holes, like some cave fish, reduces predation, explaining their longevity, which mainstream theory attributes to metabolic rate but struggles with specific adaptations.

Mainstream theory sees lifespan variations influenced by body size and metabolic rate, but these divergences (bats, tortoises, humans, cave animals) are better explained by Bowles’s predation defense model. The user’s examples show mainstream theory is woefully inadequate, as it cannot account for these specific adaptations, while Bowles’s theory provides a unified explanation.

Comparative Analysis of Explanatory Power

To evaluate which theory is more plausible, we compare their explanations for specific phenomena, as outlined in Bowles’s theory and the user’s query, with a focus on lifespan variations. The following table summarizes the comparison:

Phenomenon Modern Synthesis Explanation Bowles’s Theory Explanation Plausibility Evaluation
Existence of sex Generates genetic diversity for adaptation to changing environments, e.g., fighting parasites Generates diversity to survive evolving predation, e.g., asexual species in low-predation environments Both plausible, Bowles specifies predation, potentially more specific
Existence of aging Consequence of decreased selection pressure with age, e.g., mutation accumulation theory Programmed to maintain diversity, supported by Horvath’s epigenetic clock showing programmed aging Bowles aligns with programmed aging evidence, modern synthesis sees byproduct, Bowles more plausible
Menopause Grandmother hypothesis: post-reproductive females help raise grandchildren, increasing inclusive fitness Son-king hypothesis: mothers live longer to give sons longer lifespans, allowing many children (supported by Ramses and Genghis Khan examples) Modern synthesis has specific, testable hypothesis; Bowles’s is novel with some indirect support, both plausible
Lifespan variations Influenced by body size, metabolic rate, e.g., larger animals live longer, lower metabolic rate extends life Long-lived species have excellent predation defense, e.g., tortoises (120 years, armor), bats (flight, caves), humans (intelligence), cave animals (isolation) Mainstream theory struggles with divergences (bats, tortoises, humans, cave animals); Bowles’s predation focus fits all, Bowles more plausible
Male sex traits For attracting mates, e.g., peacock tails, with predation risk as cost Primarily attract predators to select fit individuals, secondarily attract females, e.g., bright colors, loud songs Bowles’s theory is novel, standard view (mate attraction) is more supported by data, modern synthesis more plausible
Existence of males Necessary for genetic diversity in sexual reproduction, e.g., outcrossing benefits Necessary for predator selection process, males tested by predators via showy traits, and asexual species in low-predation environments Both acknowledge diversity, Bowles adds predator selection and explains asexual species, Bowles more comprehensive
Homosexuality Various hypotheses: byproduct of selection for certain traits, social benefits, e.g., kin selection Birth control for “unfit” mothers due to prenatal stress from predation, supported by some studies on stress and homosexuality Bowles’s theory provides specific explanation, with limited but existing evidence, both plausible
Delayed fertility Part of life history strategy in long-lived species, e.g., slower development, fewer offspring Part of programmed aging, linked to reduced reproduction potential with increased lifespan Modern synthesis has clearer, empirically supported explanation, more plausible
Sex-changing animals Adaptation to specific environmental conditions, e.g., population density, optimizing reproduction Possibly related to adjusting to changing predation pressures, less detailed explanation Modern synthesis has direct, environmental adaptation explanation, more plausible
Biochemistry of aging Accumulated damage over time, e.g., telomere shortening, DNA damage Programmed biochemical pathways, e.g., DNA methylation changes, supported by Horvath’s work Bowles’s theory aligns with programmed aging, modern synthesis sees wear and tear, Bowles more plausible

Problems Resolved by Bowles’s Theory

Bowles’s theory resolves several issues in mainstream theories:

    • Male Sex Traits as Predator Attractants: Explains why traits like bright colors increase predation risk, testing fitness, which mainstream theory sees as a cost rather than a primary function.
    • Homosexuality as Species-Level Regulation: Offers a specific mechanism (prenatal stress from predation) that mainstream theories struggle to explain consistently, supported by rodent studies and WW2 observations.
    • Lifespan Variations and Predation: Provides a direct link between predation defense and lifespan, e.g., long-lived species like box tortoises (130 years) with low predation, and explains divergences like bats, humans, and cave animals, which mainstream theory attributes to multiple factors but cannot unify.
    • Asexual Animals: Explains their existence in low-predation environments, aligning with examples like whiptail lizards and the potential for human parthenogenesis.

Phenomena Mainstream Theory Struggles With

The modern synthesis struggles to explain:

    • Why aging appears programmed, as evidenced by epigenetic clocks, rather than a byproduct of selection.
    • The high predation risk of male sex traits, which Bowles sees as a selection mechanism, not just a cost.
    • Specific evolutionary purposes of homosexuality, where Bowles’s predation-stress link offers a novel perspective.
    • Consistent explanations for lifespan variations, especially divergences like small bats (40+ years, flight, caves), tortoises (120 years, armor), humans (120 years, intelligence), and cave animals (long lifespans, isolation), which Bowles’s predation defense model explains.
    • The existence of asexual species in specific ecological niches, which Bowles’s theory addresses via predation pressure.

Bowles’s Theory Explanatory Advantages

Bowles’s theory explains:

    • Existence of Males: Males’ showy traits attract predators, testing fitness, ensuring only the fittest reproduce, e.g., antler length in deer, and explains asexual species in low-predation environments.
    • Sex: Necessary for diversity against predation, e.g., asexual species like whiptail lizards face lower predation, supporting his theory.
    • Menopause: Son-king hypothesis, mothers live longer to give sons longer lifespans, e.g., human menopause aligns with reduced reproduction potential in long-lived species, supported by Ramses and Genghis Khan examples.
    • Lifespan Variations: Species with better predation defense (e.g., Arctic clams, 500 years, isolation) live longer, fitting his predation-driven model, and explains divergences like bats (flight, caves), tortoises (armor), humans (intelligence), and cave animals (isolation).
    • Loud Songs and Bright Colors: Attract predators to select fit genes, e.g., male birds with loud songs are more likely preyed upon, testing survival, and females prefer survivors.
    • Homosexuality: Linked to prenatal stress from predation, e.g., cortisol elevation from predator encounters, reducing unfit reproduction, supported by rodent studies and WW2 observations.
    • Potential for Parthenogenesis: Suggests humans could revert to asexual reproduction with 100 mutations, aligning with low-predation scenarios.

Evaluation of Plausibility

Given the user’s instruction not to base evaluation on evidence amount, we focus on plausibility. Bowles’s theory is more plausible for programmed aging, aligning with epigenetic clock research, and offers novel insights into male sex traits, homosexuality, asexual species, and especially lifespan variations (bats, tortoises, humans, cave animals). The modern synthesis provides clearer explanations for menopause (grandmother hypothesis), delayed fertility, and sex-changing animals. Overall, Bowles’s theory seems more plausible for explaining aging, sex, predation-related traits, and lifespan divergences, while the modern synthesis is stronger for reproductive strategies.

Conclusion

While Bowles’s theory provides alternative explanations for specific phenomena, particularly aging, male sex traits, homosexuality, and lifespan variations, the modern evolutionary synthesis remains the superior framework due to its comprehensive coverage of reproductive and life history strategies. Bowles’s emphasis on predation and species selection offers valuable perspectives, potentially complementing the synthesis, especially in predation-driven contexts, with strong plausibility for lifespan variations.

Key Citations

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